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НАУЧНАЯ БИБЛИОТЕКА - РЕФЕРАТЫ - Summary on the subject: Gender Issues and Hopewell Culture
Summary on the subject: Gender Issues and Hopewell Culture
Summary on the subject: Gender Issues and
Hopewell Culture
Gender Issues and Hopewell Culture
In general,
when considering third world countries, most would say that they have some very
similar characteristics. Third world countries are often thought of as places
that are impoverished, have significantly high birthrates, are economically
dependent on advanced countries, and have not evolved socially in regards to
equal rights issues. Although many of these characteristics do apply to Sri
Lanka, the latter has definitely evoked some discussion on the topic of gender
issues in underdeveloped countries. Issues such as decision making in the
household, educated women and their role in society, and attitudes towards
women in employment will be discussed. As stated earlier, most would agree that
from a distant perspective Sri Lanka would seem to be socially underdeveloped
in regards to equal rights. One way that this misconception is debunked is by
looking at the roles of male and female in the household. There are many
variables to take into consideration when looking at roles of family members
and who has the balance of power; for instance, if the wife is working or not
could be considered at both ends of the scale. If she is working than her
husband may feel that because she is making a financial contribution she has more
of a right to make important economic decisions that may effect the family. On
the other hand he may feel as though her being away from the children is a
detriment to their upbringing, and in turn is placing a burden upon the family
leaving the wife with few domestic decisions. Another variable that has to be
considered is if the residence is with the husband's family or if it is with
the wife's family. In this case one would assume that whichever house was being
resided in would have the balance of the say towards family decisions. The last
variable that will be considered is that of marital duration. Does a longer
marriage necessarily mean that the financial and domestic decisions of the
household will become split evenly between the husband and wife? The answers to
these questions were the focus of a study conducted by Anju Malhotra and Mark
Mather in 1992. The study showed that when the wives were working, regardless
of whether or not they shared their wages or kept them, they had an increase
say on financial matters. However, the domestic decisions were not nearly as
great, especially if the wages earned by the wife were kept for herself (Malhotra
et al. 1997: 620). When looking at the balance of power in regards to household
arrangement, the study found that the wife had almost no say on financial
matters when living at the husband's parents house but did have some say on
domestic issues. The opposite it true for when the family resided at the wife's
parents house. The wife typically had a significant say on financial and
domestic matters with the latter outweighing the two (Malhotra et al. 1997: 620).
As far as marital duration is concerned, it seems as though as the family grows
together there is somewhat of a role reversal. The husband becomes more
concerned with domestic matters and the wife takes some responsibility for the
financial decisions (Malhotra et al. 1997: 620). These findings led my research
group to believe that the people of Sri Lanka are generally very similar to
those of western societies in regards to household decisions. Education is not something we think about
when speaking about developing countries, many assume that it is just not an
option for underprivileged people. Although that is the unfortunate truth that
effects many third world countries, it does seem that Sri Lanka is on its way
to recovering itself. For many years the gender gap between male and female
scholars needed to be decreased. In the early 1980's the percentage of the
total amount of people with university degrees that were women was barely above
40%. A more alarming fact might be that the percentage with post-graduate
degrees was barely above 25% (Ahooja-Patel K. 1979: 217). The majority of women
pursuing a degree usually did so in the fine arts category or the education and
teacher training fields, many staying away from disciplines such as business or
engineering. Although these numbers may seem staggering Sri Lanka has shown
some promise in terms of social welfare. Programs are now in place to encourage
female education and to decrease the inequalities women face today. In the
early 1990's the gender gap between literate males and females was only a 5%
difference (Malhotra et al. 1997: 602). Many believe that the more westernized
Sri Lanka becomes the more independent the thoughts and wills of women will
expand, creating a country of little inequality. Women in the work force today
in western society face many barriers; this is after years of trying to refine
the social economic status of women. In Sri Lanka, because of its poor economy,
employers may have actual complaints that may affect the profitability of their
business. In general in Sri Lanka, men are usually preferred over women as employees.
Some employers complain that because of the possibility of the need for time
off to bear children that it may disrupt the flow of the work force. Many men
could feel as though women were being treated with undeserved favoritism, which
could cause conflict. Others feel that the financial burden of having to
install proper facilities to accommodate women could create too much of a loss
that they would not be able to overcome it. The topic of most discussions seems
to revolve around the Maternity Amendment Act of 1978, which states that women
workers are entitled to six weeks maternity leave with pay. It also states that
they are allowed two nursing breaks of one hour each or two breaks of one half
hour each when a day care center is available (Ahooja-Patel K. 1979: 219). Women
cannot, under the law, be fired for any reason that stems from them being
pregnant. An unfortunate fact that is slowly being eradicated is that many
women are just not qualified for the jobs that are available in Sri Lanka. Because
of the gender gap in education and training that has plagued Sri Lanka for
years this trend will surely continue until the inequality has subsided. In
many ways Sri Lanka has come very far in terms of gender equality when
discussing kinship and education. However, women's economic situation has shown
to be less favourable. The people of Sri Lanka acknowledge that women have a
place in the work force but financially cannot accommodate them. Until the
economic growth of Sri Lanka can develop further, people will continue to have
the 'survival of the fittest' kind of attitude, which will continue to alienate
and repress the women or Sri Lanka.
Studied since
the discovery of the conspicuous mounds in Ross County Ohio, the Hopewell have
been an archaeological enigma to many. The tradition is so named for the owner
of the farm, Captain Hopewell, where over thirty mounds were discovered. Earlier
studies focused more on the exotic grave goods such as precious metals,
freshwater pearls, many of these objects had come from all corners of the
continent from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico, and north to the
mid-Atlantic coastline (some say Hopewellian influence reached Nova Scotia). Earlier
scholars of the Hopewell (1950’s through 1960’s) were well aware of the
influence of the “Interaction Sphere”, yet concluded that the Hopewell, in
terms of lifestyle were a cult and had no influence on daily life. Later
studies suggest otherwise, as more and more information surfaces along with new
insightful interpretations. It is widely accepted that the Hopewell are the
“next generation” of the Adena. That is to say that the Adena gave rise to the
Hopewell, who had, as speculated migrated into the Ohio River Valley from
Illinois. The Hopewell have been described as a more elaborate and flamboyant
version of the Adena. Whether the Hopewell overpowered the Adena or simply
mingled with and mixed into the culture, is not certain, yet there has been no
evidence of warfare to support the former. The result was a cultural explosion
encompassing a vast majority of North America east of the Rocky Mountains to
the Atlantic coast. The Hopewell flourished in the Middle Woodland from 200 B. C.
to AD 500. The environment was nearly what it is today. Temperate with lakes,
streams, wetlands and flood-plains, the people took advantage of the seasonal
weather in the Ohio River Valley via foraging as well as hunting and gathering.
The cultivation of domestic strains of beans and maize was well on its way as
it was implemented in small amounts, catching on later in the time period. The
vegetation was a prairie/forest mix of deciduous trees, walnut, oak, various
grasses and shrub. The fauna of the region included many species of waterfowl,
turkey and other species in great abundance that are found today (perhaps in
more abundance than found today). Larger fauna included buffalo, bison, deer,
and elk and smaller animals such as rodents, raccoons, beaver and the like. Aquatic
life included freshwater mussels and clams, many fishes (bass, catfish, etc) and
turtles. As we will see, the people made abundant use of these flora and fauna
as food, clothing, container, ceremonial and ornamental objects. As for changes
through time in the environment, it is theorized (by some) that it did in fact
shift to a wetter one, perhaps driving the people to higher ground or otherwise
drier climates. Core settlement, as noted was along the Ohio River and its
estuaries on flood-plains, as well as on or near wetlands. Major areas of
population density include Newark and Chillicothe as well as Marietta. These
areas provided a lush environment of flora and fauna species that were widely
exploited over the centuries by the inhabitants. Living quarters, although
scarcely studied, consist of scattering’s of small villages with larger
settlements located near and around major mound complexes. Some of these
smaller villages seem to have been occupied seasonally while settlement was
more than likely permanent in the larger loci surrounding the mounds. Some
dwellings have been found to consist of saplings stuck into the ground in a
circle, brought together in the center and covered with elm bark or mats of
woven grasses. Post molds from various areas in Ohio and Illinois indicate oval
patterns as well as rectangular long-houses with rounded corners. Larger houses
ranged from 18 to 25 feet long and one was as large as 44x48 feet, suggesting a
large gathering place, perhaps for trading, council meetings or ceremonial
practices. The dress of the people reflected their beliefs, trading practices
and even wealth. Ornaments were worn head to foot. Women’s hair were pinned
back with dowels of wood or bone in a bun or knot and a long sort of ponytail. When
nursing, women wore their hair braided and tied up in a shorter ponytail that
was held together by a mesh or net-like bag. Typical male hairstyle was a sort
of mohawk on top with their hair pulled back into a bun in the back. As for
male dress, a warrior wore a loincloth of dyed material with patterns on it (resembling
a diaper; for lack of better description). He carried a long spear, an atl-atl,
wearing various necklaces of bone, shell and stone beads including bear claws,
shark tooth and other exotic items. The closest that these ancient north Americans
came to an iron age is revealed in their use of copper as breast plates and
helmets in warfare. Members of both sexes wore earspools (yo-yo shaped earrings)
of copper as well as bracelets and necklaces. Mica was cut and shaped into
various ornaments for headdresses in the form of animals, birds of prey talons,
geometric figures, human hand, and bear claw. Mica would be integrated into
clothing and on garments that would sparkle and reflect light, somewhat like
sequins. Not much more is known about dress, due to the fact that textiles
deteriorate rapidly in the archaeological record. Very little is known of
social and political customs; ideas being drawn from ethnographic analogy (of
Iroquois, the possible descendants) as well as being pieced together from
archaeological contexts. More than likely the people operated under matrilineal
kinship. They lived in long-houses dominated by the oldest female member of the
family and when a couple was married, the husband would move into the wives’
house and become a part of their social unit. These new husbands had very
little if any say in household matters. The children “belonged" to or were
affiliated with their mothers family, the males owing allegiance to that unit. There
were, however male chiefs who represented households and villages in tribal
affairs. Evidence for hereditary monarchy is briefly described from a report in
the 1950’s. It documents that a number of skeletons found in some mound
structures had a rare physical trait. This trait was a bony growth in the ear
that was genetically transmitted. Peoples found to harbor this growth were
found in association with vast riches of pearls, beads, precious metals, large
amounts of mica and the like, quite possibly the “inbred" mark of royalty
within a tribe or tribes. The subsistence base of the Hopewell consisted of
hunting, gathering and to a lesser extent cultivation of local plant species,
depending upon where they lived. Hunting was done primarily with spears and
projectile points, with the Indians making use of an instrument called and
atl-atl. One would attach a spear to the atl-atl and hurl it at the target, the
implement providing not only a more powerful throw, but giving the spear a more
finely tuned trajectory. Also used at this time were the bow and arrow, a big
step in technological innovation at the time. This is evident in the
archaeological record with the finding of smaller projectile points such as the
Squibnocket Triangle. As for throwing spears, larger projectile points were
used, resembling the Jack’s Reef Corner Notched, broad knife blades and corner
notched projectile points being preferred as well as being typical of the
Hopewell. Associated stone tools were found that manufactured and maintained
these weapons such as shaft straighteners. These were rocks that were about
palm-sized and had a carved groove running down the center with which one would
work a stick or small sapling through over and over to smooth away notches and
small stems. One would hunt by stalking, say a deer. The hunter would move very
slowly through the undergrowth wearing a decoy, perhaps antlers and/or head or
skin of the animal. Once in range he would hurl the spear attached to an
atl-atl to kill the animal. Other hunting methods were implemented such as the
dead fall. The Indians would set a log up in a tree and when an animal pulled
on a piece of bait it would trigger the log to fall and kill the animal. Snaring
was also practiced using saplings, the animal being caught and possibly
starving to death. Among the animals hunted were bison, deer, turkey, beaver,
muskrat, duck, raccoon and elk. Freshwater fishes such as bass and catfish were
caught using hooks made from seashells, and freshwater clams and mussels were
harvested. As for plants, many, such as gourds (for their seeds and used as
containers), sumpweed, goosefoot, sunflower, knotweed, little barley and
maygrass were cultivated. Pigweed, lambsquarter and grapes were also collected.
Tobacco was widely grown, evidenced by pollen core samples and the presence of
pipes in the archaeological record. Elk scapula and flint hoes were used to
cultivate gardens. A recent study has revealed that Middle Woodland
environments had a vast quantity of exploitable food sources. For example, in
one year an area of ten square miles could produce 182k-426k bushels of acorns,
100-840 deer, 10k-20k squirrels, 200 turkeys and many species of duck. At a
site in Scoville, 92% of meat was from deer, 4% from turkey, 72% of nuts were
hickory and 27% were walnuts. This site was not occupied from spring to
mid-spring and middle to late fall, at the exact time of waterfowl migration,
indicating that they left the area to hunt them. Surplus venison, bison, elk
and other meats were smoked, dried and stored in pits lined with leather or
bark. Fruits and vegetables were dried and stored as well as maize which was
kept in bark barrels. Cornbread, succotash and hominy (a boiled cornmeal
porridge) were baked/cooked. Maple trees were tapped to make syrup and sugar. Publications
of the 1950’s and 1960’s claim that there was a strict division of labor. Men
would hunt, fish, make weapons, canoes, bark barrels, snowshoes, paddles (oars),
cleared land and participated in the harvest. It states that women would do the
gardening, cooking, caring for children, gathered wild plants, made pottery,
wove cloth, tailored clothing and trapped smaller animals. These seem to be
sexist assumptions, as women could practice many of the “men’s work” as well as
the fact that men would also be involved in many activities slated towards
women such as caring for the children, pottery-making and weaving. Objective
approaches to interpretation of past activities should always be taken, for we
do not have all of the facts about these and other ancient peoples and never
may. Now we come to trade, which along with burial practices has put the
Hopewell on the archaeological “map” so to speak. Trade, on a continental scale
had made their presence known, spreading and absorbing ideas from the Rocky
Mountains to the East Coast, this has been named the “Hopewell Interaction
Sphere. ” There were artisans (possibly a separate class) who had individual
specialties in different raw materials. These raw materials included copper (seemingly
the choice metal of the people over gold and silver), stone, bone, and
flint-knappers, specialists in mica and highly skilled ceramists. Ceramics
underwent a change through time and were traded extensively. Normally they were
tempered with gritty sand or pulverized limestone and paddled with a cord
paddle or a wrapped stick. There were squat jars used in burials that were
smaller and thicker rimmed and diagonally hatched or crosshatched (1-2% of most
finds), and conical or spherically expanding flat-based pots with a flared
mouth, used for cooking and storage, generally a utilitarian ware. Rocker
stamping done with seashells was a popular design along with geometric patterns.
Designs below the neck were, as mentioned, geometric patterns, broad shallow
grooves that were made with a dull pointed tool (antler or stone tool). Flamingo,
spoonbill and duck were common motifs (possibly noting their importance as a
subsistence base) and the design was emphasized by texturing the figure or the
background using a rocker-stamp technique with shells in a zigzag fashion. Other
than bird motifs, concentric circles, wavelike patterns and geometric designs
are incised on the pottery. Vase-like shapes, rounded off square vessels and
trapezoidal forms have been found. The pottery was traded throughout the
interaction sphere, with particular designs being favored in various regions. Uses
include storage of foods, cooking vessels, and mortuary objects (broken
ritually, perhaps to release the “spirit" of the vessel). Other clay
objects found are highly stylized and detailed figurines in human form. They
give us an idea of typical dress, custom and hairstyle (mentioned above). Women
wore short sleeved robes tied at the waist with a wide sash, animal skin boots
as well as wrist and arm bands with patterns on them. Men wore leather bib-like
shirts and a type of loincloth (also mentioned above). Figurines discovered
depict a woman standing with an object broken in half in her two hands, a woman
carrying an infant on her back, a woman sitting with her hand on her lap and
one of a woman nursing an infant. A male figurine depicts him sitting and
holding a staff with two hands as if meditating. All of the peoples eyes are
closed, evoking reflection and/or deep thought. They are highly lifelike and
great attention to detail is paid as one can discern jewelry, headdress or
hairstyle, clothing and ornament. The purpose of the figurines could be
decoration or trade good evoking cultural values and norms. Pipestone, imported
from Missouri was used for a variety of objects such as mortar and pestle,
beads and small bowls. However, its main use was for animal (sometimes human
yet that was primarily an Adena feature) effigy platform pipes (sometimes made
of clay). They consisted of a flat rectangular base with a hole through the
middle and a very lifelike depiction of various animals on top. Effigies
included that of birds of prey, beaver, frog (or toad), a cougar or wildcat,
bear and heron. Some are just plain old bowls. A large hole was borne into the
top and tobacco or other herbs were smoked. Although I have not come across any
speculation of why particular animals were chosen, I feel as though they are
representative of particular clans or lineage’s, perhaps even moieties. Copper
was the metal of choice for the Hopewell. It was imported from the Lake
Superior region (along with silver). Copper was fashioned into rings, necklaces
and bracelets, earspools, beads, panpipes, ax-heads, breast plates, masks and
projectile points. Helmets were also made and decorated with antler and other
objects. It was fashioned by cold-working and heating, pounding it into sheets
to be cut and shaped into various forms. These objects have been found in
Tennessee, New York, Iowa and Missouri. Mica, as described above was used for
various ornaments quite possibly even mirrors, was mined in the southern
Appalachians. Obsidian, a glassy volcanic mineral obtained from Yellowstone,
was professionally worked was made into large ceremonial bifaces as well as
knives and other blades. Animal-related objects include turtle shells used for
containers and such, sharks teeth, barracuda jaw, conch shells (used as
containers and gorgets), and Busycon (giant sea snail, shell used for cups) were
from the Gulf of Mexico along with alligator teeth and skulls. Local freshwater
pearls from mussels were used as beads for necklaces, anklets and armlets or
were sewn onto clothing. Bear and wolf teeth from the Rocky Mountains were used
as pendants or beads, as well as mandibles from these animals. In one burial,
the mandible of a wolf was found inserted into a gap in a skeletons teeth. Many
of these objects were found in the main Hopewell concentration areas of
Illinois and Ohio. Galena, a type of lead ore was used to make face-paint. Recorded
findings at a site name 22 different types of exotic materials, 16 of them
being minerals, yet only two native to Ohio. Value in terms of manufacture and
symbolic meaning went hand in hand, as these objects displayed high prestige
among the people. Several trading centers include Illinois, Scioto (Ohio),
Missouri/Kansas, as well as other areas about the region. One researcher states
that it was a big festival when the traders arrived home, there were games,
dancing, food and music for two or three days, also stating that the Hopewell
were less likely to be war-like, being more interested in trade. Reciprocity
plays a role in exchange with the theory of the “Big Man. ” These individuals
were pillars of the community, possessing great wealth and prestige. They would
acquire large amounts of goods and then lend them to others in times of need. The
lend-ees would then be obligated to the “Big Man,” perhaps having to work
harder to pay back the favor. This, along with burial customs is the overall
effect of the Hopewell interaction sphere facilitating the so-called “Big Idea."
It was a philosophy, a way of life be it not all encompassing in the lives of distant
trade partners, yet affecting them through ritual ceremonialism (in some areas
as evidenced by presence’s of mounds) and trade-good manufacture. This
dispersal reached Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, New York, the
Northeast and eastern Rocky Mountain states and into the deep south. The
best-known aspects of the Hopewell are their ceremonial and burial practices
centering on earthworks and burial mounds. Earthworks included animal effigy
mounds (coinciding with animal platform pipes. Correlation?), geometric shapes,
and a particular recent find, the Great Hopewell Road. Found in Ohio, it runs
from Newark to Chillicothe, in a straight line through swamps and streams,
thought to be a spiritual or pilgrimage route, rather than one of trading. Burial
mounds were usually enclosed by a raised embankment, symbolizing a sacred place.
Earthworks were found in conjunction with burial mounds, near burial mounds or
even distances away, some taking up hundreds of acres. The great “Serpent Mound"
is a good example, yet is thought of as Adena. As for mortuary customs, three
quarters of the bodies had been cremated, full fleshed burial was probably a
privilege of higher ranked individuals, they were buried in full flexed
position. Structures called Charnel Houses were erected where the dead were
de-fleshed and then taken for cremation. First, brush was cleared from the
burial area, including trees and topsoil. Clay was then lain down and then an
inch of sand that was compacted. A large wooden structure (some with no roofs,
possibly to expose flesh to the elements for removal) was built, sometimes with
smaller rooms inside to accommodate others or extra grave goods and furniture. Cremations
were done in clay lined pits dug into the floor after the bodies had been
stripped of flesh and left there or placed inside the log cabin structure. They
were then surrounded by high-quality grave goods mentioned above, artisans or
craftsmen being interred with large amounts of their medium of specialty or
trade including pearls, mica and obsidian. One mound was found with 12,000
pearls, 35,000 pearl beads, 20,000 shell beads, nuggets of copper, meteoric
iron, silver, sheets of hammered gold and copper, and iron beads. These houses
were left standing or were burnt down and then covered with a mound taking up
to and including one million basket-fulls of earth. This was done periodically,
layering burial on top of burial, perhaps indicating lineage, that it was that
clan’s mound. Some of the skeletons had copper noses affixed to their skulls (nasal
cavities). The mounds were probably reserved for those in high status
positions, sizes ranging from ten to fifty feet high and larger. The number of
these earthworks in Ohio alone reaches 10,000, however, many have been lost in
this and other areas due to plowing and erosion. The Hopewell decline is as
much a mystery as its origins and practices. The Hopewell exchange systems seem
to have deteriorated around AD 500; Moundbuilding ceased, art forms were no
longer produced. War and mass murder is unlikely, for there is no evidence for
fighting (none even during the era). Perhaps it was the decimation of big-game
herds of buffalo, deer and elk due to the technology of the bow and arrow. Support
for this theory lies in the disappearance of atl-atl weights around the same
time as the collapse. This, in conjunction with colder climatic conditions
could have driven the animals north or west, as weather would have a
detrimental effect on plant-life, drastically cutting the subsistence base for
these foods. Along with this, food production of maize and other hardier plants
would have been more important than trading exotic goods. Another theory
suggests that they eventually dispersed for unknown reasons, moving perhaps
south, integrating with the Mississippian culture or to the northeast, lending
to the ancestral Iroquois theory. Whatever the case may be, the Hopewell have
left their indelible mark on Ancient Native North American Culture in a way
Archaeologists and Historians have never encountered.
According to
archeological and physical record, tool use has had an enormous effect in the
transformation of proto humans into modern humans. What stimulated tool use was
the proto humans intrest in new and easier ways to do things. With the
introduction of tools, body morphology changed and reproductive fitness
increased. Evolution did not happened over night. It took 4.5 million years for
humans to get where they are today. Scientists have concluded that about 3.5 million
years ago, there was the first proto human. A proto human resembles extinct
hominid populations that had some but not all the features of a modern homo
sapien. Such features were prolonged moments of bipedality, change in the
pelvis and the reduction of the sagittal crest. (Diamond 1992 pg 34) In order
for this proto human to evolve into a human, it needed tools. Some of the tools
might have been discovered by accident or by early creative geniuses? The way
they discovered the tools is unknown, but the changes the tools made were to
the physical morphology and the body behavior. They began to walk upright,
gathered supplies, cut food, and used weapons. (Diamond 1992 pg.40) About 3
million years ago, after generations of learning how to use these tools, the
hominid came out of the trees, and stayed mostly on the ground. The animal had
an abundance of food and water and lived in a population of; on the ground
proto-human animals. Some adapted to ground life and started to become bipedal,
but more than half of them stayed on all fours. The bipedal hominids vision
increased, making it able to see and do more. It obtained the ability to use
weapons more effectively and efficiently because it had arms with agility. It
found all the good meat and valued resources then eventually took over the
whole community. Soon after the bipedal creatures gained control the hominids
on four legs die off, precisely because they could not evolve quickly enough
and produce healthy, if any, offspring. The bipedal community grew into the
hundreds and thousands. Tough, healthy, and agile hominids, the strong survived
and the females produced healthy offspring which is called reproductive fitness.
The mouth became smaller and the brain increased in size. More brains equaled
better tools, which lead to a faster, more efficient evolution. (Diamond 1992
pg 12) According to the bone and fossil evidence that I have learned, this is
my interpretation how evolution might have happened. When a species develops
tools, many things can a will change. The definition of a tool is, performing
or facilitating mechanical operations. (Websters Ninth New Dictionary) Take for
instance a hominid that walks on all four limbs. How easy would it be for a
hominid, without agile arms, to mechanically operate a tool? It would be very
difficult. This type of arboreal hominid, probably lives in a tree, swings from
the branches, vision is not great, and is mostly a vegetarian. After the proto
human began to walk on two feet there hands became free and moveable. Now give
this hominid a sharp stick or a blunt object, practice as how to properly use
it, and pg 3 maybe arm agility. Then over time (about 3 to 2.5 mya) the animal
becomes a hunter, being able to strike a predator, protect, and gain control
over resources. In the movie 2001 Space Odyssey, (Anthropology 100 9/5/97) Stanley
Kubrick gives his interpretation on how we evolve. The movie shows groups of
stem-primate type creatures who represent early proto-human communities. The
creatures begin to explore their environment finding resources and developing
new ways to do things. The communities battled other primate communities for
the natural resources in their environment. One of the primates begins to break
some objects with a bone it picked up. The primate then realizes that this bone
can do major damage. When one community learns to use bones as weapons, then
that group can take over the resources in a certain area and be selected for,
which increases reproductive fitness. This scenario could have happened but the
truth is nobody knows exactly how and why things turned out the way they did. Not
just hominids use tools. Wood-peckers, vultures and sea otters are among the
other animal species that evolved by using tools to capture food, but these
creatures are not as heavily dependant as we are. (Diamond 1992 pg 36) Without
tools evolution might have taken much longer. Tools had a major affect on
teeth, hair, behavior, and even language. (Diamond 1992 pg 12) When developing
and using tools, the species takes control over the environment and makes it
work for them. One major change in the physical aspect of evolution is the
morphology of the body. Proof of this came from the discovery of Lucy, the 2.5
million year old homo - pg 4 erectus, half monkey half human. (Haviland Eighth
Edition pg 140-141) The head grew so the brain could expand, allowing hominids
to think and create new tools. The mouth became smaller and teeth turned into
herbivore teeth, enabling speech to develop. The widening of the pelvis was a
major and critical change, it allowed the animal to walk on two feet. This
change in the pelvis allowed all proto-humans to stand at long periods of time,
making it more free and taller which increased vision. Having the features of
better vision and maneuverability made it easier for the hominids to control
the environment instead of letting the environment control them. Being able to
control the environment leads to better food, healthier bodies, better reproductive
fitness and increases the quality of life. If you think about how primitive
early hominids were and you look at modern day humans. How could a bone or
stick make so much of a change in our bodies? The whole process is amazing and
until science gets the whole story, we may never know the whole truth about how
tools shaped our lives today. Who would have thought that a 0.1 percent
difference in DNA could have made such a change? (Diamond 1992 pg 54) One thing
is for sure, without tools evolution would have taken much longer.
In the country
of Sudan, in Northern Africa, there is a procedure that is tradition and is
performed on most women called female genital mutilation, or FGM, which used to
be known as female circumcision. It has been a normal practice for generations,
but is now the subject for international controversy on the morality and safety
of this procedure. It is now known that 82 percent of Sudanese woman have an
extreme form of genital mutilation done on them, normally at a young age. This
form of mutilation is called the Pharaonic form and includes the total removal
of the clitoris and labia, and stitching together of the vulva, leaving only a
small hole for urination and menstrual cycle. This is normally done without any
type of anaesthetic or professional medical care. There is also a more moderate
form of mutilation, called Sunni, where only the covering of the clitoris is
removed. This practice started and became tradition in foreign countries in
order to ensure that women practice chaste behavior, and to suppress female
sexuality. It has also been attributed to religious beliefs of monogamy
although most religions do not support this type of practice. In today's
society it has become more of a traditional and social norm, and has less to do
with religious beliefs. This problem is not only in Sudan; it is practiced in
the majority of the continent of Africa as well as other countries. In other
cultures, such as Australian aborigines, genital mutilation is a part of the
rite of passage into maturation, and is done on both men and women (Bodley, p.58).
FGM has often been referred to as female circumcision and compared to male
circumcision. However, such comparison is often misleading. Both practices
include the removal of well - functioning parts of the genitalia and are quite
unnecessary. However, FGM is far more drastic and damaging than male
circumcision because it is extremely dangerous and painful. It is believed that
two thirds of these procedures are done by untrained birth attendants, who have
little knowledge of health. They are often unconcerned with hygiene, and many
use instruments that are not cleaned or disinfected properly. Instruments such
as razor blades, scissors, kitchen knives, and pieces of glass are commonly
used. These instruments are frequently used on several girls in succession and
are rarely cleaned, causing the transmission of a variety of viruses such as
the HIV virus, and other infections. There are many side effects of this
procedure including trauma, stress or shock from the extreme pain; and
bleeding, hemorrhaging and infections that can be fatal from improperly cleaned
instruments. There can also be painful and difficult sexual relations and
obstructed childbirth. The effects of this one procedure can last a lifetime,
both physically and pyschologically. Today, 85 to 114 million girls and women
in more than 30 countries have been subjected to some form of genital
mutilation. It was declared illegal in Sudan in 1941, although that did little
to stop this age-old tradition. To this day, about 90% of women are still being
subjected to the mutilation, especially if it is a family tradition. In various
cultures there are many "justifications" for these practices. Many older
women feel that if they have an uncircumcised daughter, she will not be able to
find a husband and will become a social outcast. Family honor, cleanliness,
protection against spells, insurance of virginity and faithfulness to the
husband, or simply terrorizing women out of sex are sometimes used as excuses
for the practice of FGM. Examples similar to this are found in other cultures,
such as the Maasai, an African cattle peoples tribe. A clitoridectomy is
performed on adolescent girls in this tribe as part of their rite of passage,
and signifies that they are ready for marriage. This practice is openly
accepted by these women as another ritual and a normal precondition of marriage
(Bodley, p.121). The efforts to stop procedures of this kind are mounting
though, especially with the help of women ages 16 to 30 who realize the dangers
of this practice. These women can help to save their daughters and many other
women from this if they are educated of the dangers. It ends up damaging their
health, as well as their socio-economic lives; which is why it needs to be put
to a stop. It is also unnecessary in today's society. These women have joined
together to create the Sudan National Committee on Harmful Traditional
Practices, and are now working to eliminate it completely. They have also
joined together with government support and are a part of the National Plan of
Action for the Survival, Protection and Development of Sudanese Children, where
they work to educate people of the dangers of this procedure. In the United
States and other Western countries, both female and male circumcision is
practiced, although male circumcision is much more common. Female mutilation is
still an issue in Western countries though, and needs to be dealt with. These
countries commonly used FGM as a means to deal with unruly, insane or
temperamental women earlier in this century. Routine circumcision as a
preventative or cure for masturbation was also proposed in Victorian times in
America. In females, it was once thought that the application of pure carbolic
acid to the clitoris an excellent means of allaying the abnormal excitement. The
procedure of circumcisions, on both men and women, became commonplace between
1870 and 1920, and it consequently spread to all the English-speaking countries
such as England, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. As a form of social control
it fell out of fashion some time in the 1930's or 1940's. However, it has
continued to the present in some form or another. In the United States alone it
is estimated that about ten thousand girls are at risk of this practice in
today's society. A bill was recently presented to the U. S.government in 1994
prohibiting female genital mutilation to be performed, unless done for a
medical reason by a trained professional. Although we are fighting for
preventative measures, this surgery is still routinely performed on women in
the United States. Some doctors believe and act upon the idea that excision
does not prevent sexual pleasure but enhances it. FGM is also entering the
United States with some immigrants who are holding on to their customs and
identity. On the United States level, and in other places around the world,
there are finally numerous efforts being made in order to abolish this practice
both locally and internationally. Many laws have been passed over the last
decade, in the United States and other Western countries, prohibiting any kind
of mutilation on young girls, other than for medical purposes. In the future,
leaders are hoping to enforce these rules in other smaller countries, where the
government can do little to stop these unlawful acts, especially in Tribal
peoples and other communities were laws are not strictly enforced.
Bibliography
1. Ahooja-Patel,
Krishna. 1995. Employment of Women in Sri Lanka: the Situation in Colombo. p. 213-233.
2 Baker, Victoria,
J. 1998. A Sinhalese Village in Sri Lanka: Coping with Uncertainty.
3. Cisneros,
Susana, P. 1995. Supporting Women in the Informal Sector: A Peruvian Experience.
p.159-186.
4. Malhotra, Anju.,
M. Mather. 1997. Do Schooling and Work Empower Women in Developing Countries? Gender
and Domestic Decisions in Sri Lanka. p.599-627.
5. Perera, Lakshmi.
1995. Women in Micro - and Small-Scale Enterprise Development in Sri Lanka. p.101-116.
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